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Love and Slavery: Serfdom, Emancipation, and Family in Tolstoy's Fiction

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Russian author

Leo Tolstoy
Tolstoy on 23 May 1908 at Yasnaya Polyana,[1] Lithograph print by Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

Tolstoy on 23 May 1908 at Yasnaya Polyana,[ane] Lithograph print by Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky
Native name

Лев Николаевич Толстой
Born (1828-09-09)ix September 1828
Yasnaya Polyana, Tula Governorate, Russian Empire
Died 20 Nov 1910(1910-11-xx) (aged 82)
Astapovo, Ryazan Governorate, Russian Empire
Resting place Yasnaya Polyana
Occupation Novelist, curt story writer, playwright, essayist
Language Russian
Period 1847–1910
Literary move Realism
Notable works
  • War and Peace
  • Anna Karenina
  • The Death of Ivan Ilyich
  • The Kingdom of God Is Within You
  • Resurrection
Spouse

Sophia Behrs

​

(k. )​
Children 13
Relatives
  • Nikolay Tolstoy (father)
  • Mariya Tolstaya (female parent)
Signature

Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy [notation ane] (;[2] Russian: Лев Николаевич Толстой,[note two] IPA: [ˈlʲef nʲɪkɐˈla(j)ɪvʲɪtɕ tɐlˈstoj] ( audio speaker icon heed ); 9 September [O.Southward. 28 August] 1828 – 20 November [O.S. vii November] 1910), usually referred to in English every bit Leo Tolstoy, was a Russian writer who is regarded equally one of the greatest authors of all time.[3] He received nominations for the Nobel Prize in Literature every twelvemonth from 1902 to 1906 and for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1901, 1902, and 1909. That he never won is a major controversy.[four] [5] [6] [7]

Built-in to an aristocratic Russian family in 1828,[3] Tolstoy'southward notable works include the novels War and Peace (1869) and Anna Karenina (1878),[viii] often cited every bit pinnacles of realist fiction.[3] He first achieved literary acclaim in his twenties with his semi-autobiographical trilogy, Babyhood, Boyhood, and Youth (1852–1856), and Sevastopol Sketches (1855), based upon his experiences in the Crimean War. His fiction includes dozens of short stories and several novellas such as The Decease of Ivan Ilyich (1886), Family Happiness (1859), "After the Ball" (1911), and Hadji Murad (1912). He also wrote plays and numerous philosophical essays.

In the 1870s, Tolstoy experienced a profound moral crisis, followed past what he regarded as an every bit profound spiritual awakening, as outlined in his non-fiction work A Confession (1882). His literal estimation of the ethical teachings of Jesus, centering on the Sermon on the Mount, acquired him to become a fervent Christian anarchist and pacifist.[3] His ideas on nonviolent resistance, expressed in such works every bit The Kingdom of God Is Within You (1894), had a profound touch on on such pivotal 20th-century figures as Mahatma Gandhi[9] and Martin Luther King Jr.[10] He also became a dedicated advocate of Georgism, the economical philosophy of Henry George, which he incorporated into his writing, particularly Resurrection (1899).

Origins

The Tolstoys were a well-known family of quondam Russian nobility who traced their ancestry to a mythical nobleman named Indris described by Pyotr Tolstoy equally arriving "from Nemec, from the lands of Caesar" to Chernigov in 1353 along with his two sons Litvinos (or Litvonis) and Zimonten (or Zigmont) and a druzhina of 3000 people.[11] [12] While the word "Nemec" has been long used to describe Germans only, at that fourth dimension it was applied to whatsoever foreigner who didn't speak Russian (from the word nemoy meaning mute).[13] Indris was then converted to Eastern Orthodoxy, under the name of Leonty, and his sons as Konstantin and Feodor. Konstantin's grandson Andrei Kharitonovich was nicknamed Tolstiy (translated as fat) past Vasily 2 of Moscow after he moved from Chernigov to Moscow.[11] [12]

Considering of the pagan names and the fact that Chernigov at the time was ruled by Demetrius I Starshy, some researchers concluded that they were Lithuanians who arrived from the Grand Duchy of Republic of lithuania.[11] [14] [fifteen] At the same fourth dimension, no mention of Indris was ever plant in the 14th-to-16th-century documents, while the Chernigov Chronicles used by Pyotr Tolstoy as a reference were lost.[eleven] The first documented members of the Tolstoy family besides lived during the 17th century, thus Pyotr Tolstoy himself is by and large considered the founder of the noble house, being granted the title of count by Peter the Slap-up.[16] [17]

Life and career

Portrait of Nikolay Ilyich Tolstoy, 1823

Leo Tolstoy at historic period twenty, c. 1848

Tolstoy was born at Yasnaya Polyana, a family estate 12 kilometres (seven.5 mi) southwest of Tula, and 200 kilometres (120 mi) s of Moscow. He was the fourth of five children of Count Nikolai Ilyich Tolstoy (1794–1837), a veteran of the Patriotic State of war of 1812, and Countess Mariya Tolstaya (née Volkonskaya; 1790–1830). His female parent died when he was ii and his father when he was 9. Tolstoy and his siblings were brought up by relatives.[three] In 1844, he began studying police force and oriental languages at Kazan University, where teachers described him as "both unable and unwilling to acquire".[xviii] Tolstoy left the university in the middle of his studies,[18] returned to Yasnaya Polyana and and so spent much time in Moscow, Tula and St. petersburg, leading a lax and leisurely lifestyle.[three] He began writing during this menses,[eighteen] including his first novel Childhood, a fictitious account of his own youth, which was published in 1852.[3] In 1851, after running up heavy gambling debts, he went with his older brother to the Caucasus and joined the ground forces. Tolstoy served as a young artillery officeholder during the Crimean War and was in Sevastopol during the 11-month-long siege of Sevastopol in 1854–55,[19] including the Battle of the Chernaya. During the war he was recognised for his courage and promoted to lieutenant.[19] He was appalled by the number of deaths involved in warfare,[eighteen] and left the army later the end of the Crimean War.[iii]

His experience in the regular army, and two trips around Europe in 1857 and 1860–61 converted Tolstoy from a dissolute and privileged society writer to a non-trigger-happy and spiritual anarchist. Others who followed the aforementioned path were Alexander Herzen, Mikhail Bakunin and Peter Kropotkin. During his 1857 visit, Tolstoy witnessed a public execution in Paris, a traumatic experience that marked the residual of his life. In a alphabetic character to his friend Vasily Botkin, Tolstoy wrote: "The truth is that the State is a conspiracy designed not only to exploit, but above all to corrupt its citizens ... Henceforth, I shall never serve whatever government anywhere."[twenty] Tolstoy'southward concept of non-violence or ahimsa was bolstered when he read a German version of the Tirukkural.[21] He subsequently instilled the concept in Mahatma Gandhi through his A Letter to a Hindu when young Gandhi corresponded with him seeking his advice.[22] [23]

His European trip in 1860–61 shaped both his political and literary development when he met Victor Hugo. Tolstoy read Hugo's newly finished Les Misérables. The similar evocation of battle scenes in Hugo's novel and Tolstoy's War and Peace indicates this influence. Tolstoy's political philosophy was also influenced by a March 1861 visit to French anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, and then living in exile under an assumed proper name in Brussels. Tolstoy reviewed Proudhon's forthcoming publication, La Guerre et la Paix ("War and Peace" in French), and later used the title for his masterpiece. The two men also discussed education, as Tolstoy wrote in his educational notebooks: "If I recount this chat with Proudhon, information technology is to testify that, in my personal experience, he was the just man who understood the significance of didactics and of the printing press in our time."

Fired past enthusiasm, Tolstoy returned to Yasnaya Polyana and founded 13 schools for the children of Russian federation'south peasants, who had only been emancipated from serfdom in 1861. Tolstoy described the schools' principles in his 1862 essay "The School at Yasnaya Polyana".[24] His educational experiments were short-lived, partly due to harassment past the Tsarist hugger-mugger law. Even so, as a direct forerunner to A.S. Neill's Summerhill School, the school at Yasnaya Polyana[25] can justifiably exist claimed the first example of a coherent theory of democratic education.

Personal life

The death of his brother Nikolay in 1860 had an touch on Tolstoy, and led him to a desire to marry.[18] On 23 September 1862, Tolstoy married Sophia Andreevna Behrs, who was sixteen years his junior and the daughter of a courtroom doc. She was called Sonya, the Russian diminutive of Sofia, by her family and friends.[26] They had 13 children, eight of whom survived babyhood:[27]

  • Count Sergei Lvovich Tolstoy (1863–1947), composer and ethnomusicologist
  • Countess Tatyana Lvovna Tolstaya (1864–1950), wife of Mikhail Sergeevich Sukhotin
  • Count Ilya Lvovich Tolstoy (1866–1933), writer
  • Count Lev Lvovich Tolstoy (1869–1945), writer and sculptor
  • Countess Maria Lvovna Tolstaya (1871–1906), married woman of Nikolai Leonidovich Obolensky
  • Count Peter Lvovich Tolstoy (1872–1873), died in infancy
  • Count Nikolai Lvovich Tolstoy (1874–1875), died in infancy
  • Countess Varvara Lvovna Tolstaya (1875–1875), died in infancy
  • Count Andrei Lvovich Tolstoy (1877–1916), served in the Russo-Japanese War
  • Count Michael Lvovich Tolstoy (1879–1944)
  • Count Alexei Lvovich Tolstoy (1881–1886)
  • Countess Alexandra Lvovna Tolstaya (1884–1979)
  • Count Ivan Lvovich Tolstoy (1888–1895)

The marriage was marked from the outset past sexual passion and emotional insensitivity when Tolstoy, on the eve of their marriage, gave her his diaries detailing his extensive sexual past and the fact that ane of the serfs on his estate had borne him a son.[26] Yet, their early on married life was happy and immune Tolstoy much liberty and the support system to compose State of war and Peace and Anna Karenina with Sonya acting equally his secretary, editor, and financial manager. Sonya was copying and hand-writing his epic works time later on time. Tolstoy would continue editing War and Peace and had to take clean terminal drafts to exist delivered to the publisher.[26] [28]

All the same, their later life together has been described by A.N. Wilson as ane of the unhappiest in literary history. Tolstoy's human relationship with his wife deteriorated as his beliefs became increasingly radical. This saw him seeking to decline his inherited and earned wealth, including the renunciation of the copyrights on his earlier works.

Some of the members of the Tolstoy family left Russia in the backwash of the 1905 Russian Revolution and the subsequent institution of the Soviet Union, and many of Leo Tolstoy's relatives and descendants today live in Sweden, Germany, the United Kingdom, France and the U.s.. Tolstoy'south son, Count Lev Lvovich Tolstoy, settled in Sweden and married a Swedish adult female. Leo Tolstoy's last surviving grandchild, Countess Tatiana Tolstoy-Paus, died in 2007 at Herresta manor in Sweden, which is owned by Tolstoy's descendants.[29] Swedish jazz singer Viktoria Tolstoy is also descended from Leo Tolstoy.[xxx]

I of his cracking-great-grandsons, Vladimir Tolstoy (born 1962), is a manager of the Yasnaya Polyana museum since 1994 and an adviser to the President of Russia on cultural affairs since 2012.[31] [32] Ilya Tolstoy's great-grandson, Pyotr Tolstoy, is a well-known Russian journalist and Telly presenter equally well as a Land Duma deputy since 2016. His cousin Fyokla Tolstaya (born Anna Tolstaya in 1971), daughter of the acclaimed Soviet Slavist Nikita Tolstoy (ru) (1923–1996), is also a Russian journalist, TV and radio host.[33]

Novels and fictional works

Tolstoy is considered one of the giants of Russian literature; his works include the novels War and Peace and Anna Karenina and novellas such every bit Hadji Murad and The Death of Ivan Ilyich.

Tolstoy's earliest works, the autobiographical novels Childhood, Boyhood, and Youth (1852–1856), tell of a rich landowner'southward son and his deadening realization of the chasm between himself and his peasants. Though he after rejected them equally sentimental, a great deal of Tolstoy'southward ain life is revealed. They retain their relevance as accounts of the universal story of growing up.

Tolstoy served as a second lieutenant in an arms regiment during the Crimean War, recounted in his Sevastopol Sketches. His experiences in battle helped stir his subsequent pacifism and gave him material for realistic delineation of the horrors of war in his later on work.[34]

His fiction consistently attempts to convey realistically the Russian society in which he lived.[35] The Cossacks (1863) describes the Cossack life and people through a story of a Russian aristocrat in love with a Cossack girl. Anna Karenina (1877) tells parallel stories of an adulterous woman trapped by the conventions and falsities of society and of a philosophical landowner (much like Tolstoy), who works aslope the peasants in the fields and seeks to reform their lives. Tolstoy not but drew from his own life experiences but also created characters in his own image, such as Pierre Bezukhov and Prince Andrei in War and Peace, Levin in Anna Karenina and to some extent, Prince Nekhlyudov in Resurrection. Richard Pevear who translated numerous of Tolstoy's works talked about his signature style equally, "His works are full of provocation and irony, and written with broad and elaborately developed rhetorical devices."[36]

War and Peace is generally idea to be one of the greatest novels ever written, remarkable for its dramatic breadth and unity. Its vast sail includes 580 characters, many historical with others fictional. The story moves from family life to the headquarters of Napoleon, from the court of Alexander I of Russia to the battlefields of Austerlitz and Borodino. Tolstoy'southward original idea for the novel was to investigate the causes of the Decembrist revolt, to which information technology refers only in the final chapters, from which can be deduced that Andrei Bolkonsky'southward son volition get i of the Decembrists. The novel explores Tolstoy'due south theory of history, and in particular the insignificance of individuals such as Napoleon and Alexander. Somewhat surprisingly, Tolstoy did not consider State of war and Peace to be a novel (nor did he consider many of the not bad Russian fictions written at that time to be novels). This view becomes less surprising if one considers that Tolstoy was a novelist of the realist school who considered the novel to be a framework for the test of social and political issues in nineteenth-century life.[37] War and Peace (which is to Tolstoy really an epic in prose) therefore did non authorize. Tolstoy thought that Anna Karenina was his kickoff true novel.[38]

After Anna Karenina, Tolstoy concentrated on Christian themes, and his later novels such as The Death of Ivan Ilyich (1886) and What Is to Be Done? develop a radical anarcho-pacifist Christian philosophy which led to his excommunication from the Russian Orthodox Church in 1901.[39] For all the praise showered on Anna Karenina and War and Peace, Tolstoy rejected the ii works later in his life as something not every bit true of reality.[forty]

In his novel Resurrection, Tolstoy attempts to expose the injustice of man-made laws and the hypocrisy of institutionalized church. Tolstoy also explores and explains the economic philosophy of Georgism, of which he had get a very stiff advocate towards the finish of his life.

Tolstoy also tried himself in poetry with several soldier songs written during his military service and fairy tales in verse such as Volga-bogatyr and Oaf stylized as national folk songs. They were written betwixt 1871 and 1874 for his Russian Book for Reading, a collection of curt stories in four volumes (total of 629 stories in diverse genres) published along with the New Azbuka textbook and addressed to schoolchildren. Nevertheless, he was skeptical about poetry as a genre. As he famously said, "Writing poetry is like ploughing and dancing at the same time". According to Valentin Bulgakov, he criticised poets, including Alexander Pushkin, for their "faux" epithets used "just to make it rhyme".[41] [42]

Critical appraisal by other authors

Tolstoy'south contemporaries paid him lofty tributes. Fyodor Dostoyevsky, who died 30 years before Tolstoy, admired and was delighted by Tolstoy's novels (and, conversely, Tolstoy also admired Dostoyevsky's work).[43] Gustave Flaubert, on reading a translation of War and Peace, exclaimed, "What an artist and what a psychologist!" Anton Chekhov, who often visited Tolstoy at his land estate, wrote, "When literature possesses a Tolstoy, it is piece of cake and pleasant to be a author; even when you know you accept accomplished nothing yourself and are still achieving aught, this is not as terrible equally information technology might otherwise be, because Tolstoy achieves for anybody. What he does serves to justify all the hopes and aspirations invested in literature." The 19th-century British poet and critic Matthew Arnold opined that "A novel by Tolstoy is non a piece of work of art merely a piece of life."[3]

Later novelists continued to appreciate Tolstoy's art, but sometimes also expressed criticism. Arthur Conan Doyle wrote "I am attracted by his earnestness and past his ability of item, but I am repelled by his looseness of structure and past his unreasonable and impracticable mysticism."[44] Virginia Woolf declared him "the greatest of all novelists."[three] James Joyce noted that "He is never dull, never stupid, never tired, never pedantic, never theatrical!" Thomas Isle of mann wrote of Tolstoy'south seemingly guileless artistry: "Seldom did art work so much like nature." Vladimir Nabokov heaped superlatives upon The Death of Ivan Ilyich and Anna Karenina; he questioned, nevertheless, the reputation of State of war and Peace, and sharply criticized Resurrection and The Kreutzer Sonata.

Religious and political beliefs

Tolstoy dressed in peasant clothing, by Ilya Repin (1901)

Afterward reading Schopenhauer's The World as Will and Representation, Tolstoy gradually became converted to the ascetic morality upheld in that piece of work equally the proper spiritual path for the upper classes. In 1869 he writes: "Practice you know what this summertime has meant for me? Abiding raptures over Schopenhauer and a whole serial of spiritual delights which I've never experienced before. ... no student has ever studied and so much on his form, and learned so much, as I accept this summer".[45]

In Chapter Half dozen of A Confession, Tolstoy quoted the final paragraph of Schopenhauer's work. It explains how a complete denial of self causes but a relative pettiness which is not to be feared. Tolstoy was struck by the clarification of Christian, Buddhist, and Hindu ascetic renunciation every bit beingness the path to holiness. After reading passages such equally the following, which grow in Schopenhauer's ethical chapters, the Russian nobleman chose poverty and formal denial of the volition:

But this very necessity of involuntary suffering (by poor people) for eternal salvation is also expressed by that utterance of the Savior (Matthew nineteen:24): "It is easier for a camel to go through the heart of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God." Therefore, those who were greatly in earnest virtually their eternal salvation, chose voluntary poverty when fate had denied this to them and they had been built-in in wealth. Thus Buddha Sakyamuni was built-in a prince, but voluntarily took to the mendicant's staff; and Francis of Assisi, the founder of the mendicant orders who, equally a youngster at a ball, where the daughters of all the notabilities were sitting together, was asked: "Now Francis, volition y'all not before long make your option from these beauties?" and who replied: "I have fabricated a far more beautiful option!" "Whom?" "La povertà (poverty)": whereupon he abandoned every matter soon afterwards and wandered through the land as a mendicant.[46]

In 1884, Tolstoy wrote a book called What I Believe, in which he openly confessed his Christian beliefs. He affirmed his belief in Jesus Christ's teachings and was particularly influenced past the Sermon on the Mountain, and the injunction to plow the other cheek, which he understood as a "commandment of not-resistance to evil by force" and a doctrine of pacifism and nonviolence. In his work The Kingdom of God Is Within You, he explains that he considered mistaken the Church'south doctrine considering they had made a "perversion" of Christ'due south teachings. Tolstoy as well received letters from American Quakers who introduced him to the non-violence writings of Quaker Christians such as George Play a trick on, William Penn and Jonathan Dymond. Tolstoy believed existence a Christian required him to be a pacifist; the patently inevitable waging of war by governments, is why he is considered a philosophical anarchist.

Afterwards, various versions of "Tolstoy's Bible" were published, indicating the passages Tolstoy most relied on, specifically, the reported words of Jesus himself.[47]

Tolstoy believed that a true Christian could observe lasting happiness past striving for inner perfection through following the Slap-up Commandment of loving 1's neighbor and God, rather than guidance from the Church or country. Some other distinct aspect of his philosophy based on Christ'south teachings is nonresistance during conflict. This idea in Tolstoy'due south volume The Kingdom of God Is Within You direct influenced Mahatma Gandhi and therefore besides nonviolent resistance movements to this day.

Tolstoy believed that the elite was a burden on the poor.[48] He opposed private land ownership and the institution of spousal relationship, and valued chastity and sexual forbearance (discussed in Father Sergius and his preface to The Kreutzer Sonata), ideals also held by the young Gandhi. Tolstoy's passion from the depth of his austere moral views is reflected in his later piece of work.[49] One example is the sequence of the temptation of Sergius in Begetter Sergius. Maxim Gorky relates how Tolstoy in one case read this passage before him and Chekhov and Tolstoy was moved to tears past the end of the reading. Later passages of rare ability include the personal crises faced by the protagonists of The Death of Ivan Ilyich, and of Master and Man, where the main grapheme in the former and the reader in the latter are fabricated enlightened of the foolishness of the protagonists' lives.

Tolstoy had a profound influence on the development of Christian anarchist thought.[50] The Tolstoyans were a modest Christian agitator group formed by Tolstoy'southward companion, Vladimir Chertkov (1854–1936), to spread Tolstoy'south religious teachings. Philosopher Peter Kropotkin wrote of Tolstoy in the commodity on anarchism in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica:

Without naming himself an anarchist, Leo Tolstoy, similar his predecessors in the pop religious movements of the 15th and 16th centuries, Chojecki, Denk and many others, took the anarchist position as regards the state and belongings rights, deducing his conclusions from the general spirit of the teachings of Jesus and from the necessary dictates of reason. With all the might of his talent, Tolstoy fabricated (especially in The Kingdom of God Is Within You lot) a powerful criticism of the church building, the state and police force birthday, and especially of the present property laws. He describes the state as the domination of the wicked ones, supported past brutal strength. Robbers, he says, are far less dangerous than a well-organized authorities. He makes a searching criticism of the prejudices which are electric current now concerning the benefits conferred upon men by the church, the state, and the existing distribution of property, and from the teachings of Jesus he deduces the rule of non-resistance and the absolute condemnation of all wars. His religious arguments are, all the same, so well combined with arguments borrowed from a dispassionate observation of the nowadays evils, that the anarchist portions of his works appeal to the religious and the not-religious reader alike.[51]

Tolstoy denounced the intervention past the 8-Nation Alliance in the Boxer Rebellion in China,[52] [53] the Filipino-American War, and the Second Boer State of war.[54]

Tolstoy praised the Boxer Rebellion and harshly criticized the atrocities of the Russian, German, American, Japanese and other troops of the Eight-Nation alliance. He heard well-nigh the annexation, rapes and murders, and accused the troops of slaughter and "Christian brutality". He named the monarchs most responsible for the atrocities as Tsar Nicholas Two and Kaiser Wilhelm Ii.[55] [56] He described the intervention as "terrible for its injustice and cruelty".[57] The war was also criticized past other intellectuals such as Leonid Andreyev and Gorky. As part of the criticism, Tolstoy wrote an epistle called To the Chinese people.[58] In 1902, he wrote an open letter describing and denouncing Nicholas II'south activities in China.[59]

The Boxer Rebellion stirred Tolstoy's interest in Chinese philosophy.[sixty] He was a famous sinophile, and read the works of Confucius[61] [62] [63] and Lao Zi. Tolstoy wrote Chinese Wisdom and other texts about China. Tolstoy corresponded with the Chinese intellectual Gu Hongming and recommended that China remain an agrarian nation, and not reform like Japan. Tolstoy and Gu opposed the Hundred Day'south Reform by Kang Youwei and believed that the reform motility was perilous.[64] Tolstoy's credo of non-violence shaped the thought of the Chinese agitator group Society for the Report of Socialism.[65]

Moving picture by Aleksandr Osipovich Drankov of Tolstoy's 80th birthday (1908) at Yasnaya Polyana, showing his married woman Sofya (picking flowers in the garden) daughter Aleksandra (sitting in the carriage in the white blouse); his adjutant and confidante V. Chertkov (baldheaded man with the bristles and mustache); and students.

In hundreds of essays over the last twenty years of his life, Tolstoy reiterated the anarchist critique of the land and recommended books by Kropotkin and Proudhon to his readers, while rejecting riot's espousal of violent revolutionary means. In the 1900 essay, "On Anarchy", he wrote: "The Anarchists are right in everything; in the negation of the existing club, and in the assertion that, without Potency, at that place could not exist worse violence than that of Authority nether existing conditions. They are mistaken only in thinking that Anarchy can be instituted past a revolution. Simply it will be instituted only by there being more and more people who do not require the protection of governmental power ... There tin can be only ane permanent revolution—a moral ane: the regeneration of the inner man." Despite his misgivings nearly anarchist violence, Tolstoy took risks to circulate the prohibited publications of anarchist thinkers in Russia, and corrected the proofs of Kropotkin'due south "Words of a Rebel", illegally published in St Petersburg in 1906.[66]

Tolstoy in his study in 1908 (age eighty)

In 1908, Tolstoy wrote A Letter to a Hindu [67] outlining his belief in not-violence every bit a ways for India to gain independence from colonial rule. In 1909, Gandhi read a copy of the letter when he was becoming an activist in South Africa. He wrote to Tolstoy seeking proof that he was the author, which led to further correspondence.[21] Tolstoy'due south The Kingdom of God Is Within You also helped to convince Gandhi of nonviolent resistance, a debt Gandhi best-selling in his autobiography, calling Tolstoy "the greatest apostle of non-violence that the present age has produced". Their correspondence lasted merely a yr, from Oct 1909 until Tolstoy'southward expiry in November 1910, only led Gandhi to give the proper noun Tolstoy Colony to his 2d ashram in South Africa.[68] Both men likewise believed in the merits of vegetarianism, the subject of several of Tolstoy's essays.[69]

Tolstoy also became a major supporter of the Esperanto motion. He was impressed past the pacifist beliefs of the Doukhobors and brought their persecution to the attention of the international customs, after they burned their weapons in peaceful protest in 1895. He aided the Doukhobors to migrate to Canada.[70] He likewise provided inspiration to the Mennonites, another religious group with anti-government and anti-war sentiments.[71] [72] In 1904, Tolstoy condemned the ensuing Russo-Japanese War and wrote to the Japanese Buddhist priest Soyen Shaku in a failed attempt to brand a articulation pacifist statement.

Towards the finish of his life, Tolstoy get occupied with the economical theory and social philosophy of Georgism.[73] [74] [75] He incorporated it approvingly into works such as Resurrection (1899), the book that was a major cause for his excommunication.[76] He spoke with great admiration of Henry George, stating once that "People exercise not argue with the teaching of George; they simply do non know it. And it is impossible to do otherwise with his teaching, for he who becomes acquainted with it cannot but concur."[77] He besides wrote a preface to George'south journal Social Issues.[78] Tolstoy and George both rejected private property in country (the most important source of income for Russian elite that Tolstoy heavily criticized). They too rejected a centrally planned socialist economy. Because Georgism requires an assistants to collect country hire and spend it on infrastructure, some presume that this embrace moved Tolstoy abroad from his anarchist views. Yet, anarchist versions of Georgism have been proposed since then.[79] Tolstoy'south 1899 novel Resurrection explores his thoughts on Georgism and hints that Tolstoy had such a view. It suggests minor communities with local governance to manage the collective country rents for common goods, while still heavily criticising state institutions such as the justice system.

Death

Tolstoy died in 1910, aged 82. Just before his decease, his health was a business of his family, who cared for him daily. In his terminal days, he spoke and wrote about dying. Renouncing his aristocratic lifestyle, he left dwelling house one winter night.[fourscore] His secretive departure was an credible effort to escape from his wife'southward tirades. She spoke out against many of his teachings, and in recent years had grown envious of his attending to Tolstoyan "disciples".

Tolstoy died of pneumonia[81] at Astapovo railway station, afterwards a twenty-four hour period'due south train journeying s.[82] The station master took Tolstoy to his apartment, and his personal doctors arrived and gave him injections of morphine and camphor.

The police force tried to limit access to his funeral procession, but thousands of peasants lined the streets. Still, some were heard to say that, other than knowing that "some nobleman had died", they knew footling else about Tolstoy.[83]

According to some sources, Tolstoy spent the final hours of his life preaching love, non-violence, and Georgism to fellow passengers on the train.[84]

Legacy

Although Leo Tolstoy was regarded as a Christian anarchist and not a socialist, his ideas and works even so influenced socialist thinkers throughout history. He held an unromantic view of governments as beingness essentially vehement forces held together by intimidation from land authorization, abuse on behalf of officials, and the indoctrination of people from a young age.[85] In regard to his view of economic science, he advocated for a return to subsistence agriculture.[86] In his view, a simplified economy would beget a lesser need for the exchange of goods, and as such, factories and cities – the centers of industry – would become obsolete.[86]

In 1944, literary historian and Soviet medievalist Nikolai Gudzii wrote a biography of Tolstoy that spanned 80 pages. It was designed to show readers that Tolstoy would have revised his pacifistic and anti-patriotic sentiments if he were alive amidst Earth War II.[87] At around the same fourth dimension, literary scholar and historian Boris Eikhenbaum – in a stark contrast from his earlier works on Tolstoy – portrayed the Russian novelist equally someone whose ideas aligned with those of early utopian socialists such equally Robert Owen and Henri Saint-Simon. Eikenbaum suggested that these influences can be seen in Tolstoy's emphases on individual happiness and peasant welfare.[88] The discrepancies in Eikenbaum's portrayals of Tolstoy can be attributed to the political pressure in Soviet Russian federation at the time: public officials pressured literary scholars to conform with party doctrine.[88]

In Soviet Russian federation

From Tolstoy's writings the Tolstoyan movement was birthed, and its members used his works to promote not-violence, anti-urbanism and opposition to the state.[89] While Tolstoy himself never associated with the movement, as he was opposed to joining any organisation or group, he named his thirteenth daughter Alexandra (Sasha) L'vovna Tolstaya the heir to his works with the intention that she would publish them for the Russian people.[89] Meanwhile, Tolstoy designated Vladimir Chertkov – who kept many of Tolstoy's manuscripts – equally the editor of his works. Originally Tolstoy wanted to make the Russian people the heirs to his writings, but Russian police at the time decreed that property could merely be inherited by one individual.[89]

Post-obit the Russian Civil War in 1917, writings that were formerly censored could at present exist published, since the all literary works were nationalized in November 1918.[89] Alexandra worked during these years to publish sets of Tolstoy's works: from 1917 to 1919, she worked with Zadruga Publishing Business firm to publish thirteen booklets on Tolstoy'south writings, which had previously been censored under Russian federation'southward imperial rule. However, publishing a complete collection of Tolstoy'south works proved to be more than difficult. In Dec 1918, the Commissariat of Education granted Chertkov a x million rouble subsidy to publish a complete edition of his works, just it never materialized due to authorities control of publication rights.[89] Cooperatives were additionally fabricated illegal in Russia in 1921, creating another obstacle for Alexandra and Chertkov.[89]

In the 1920s, Tolstoy'southward estate, Yasnaya Polyana, was sanctioned by the Soviet regime to exist equally a commune for Tolstoyans. The government permitted this Christian-oriented community because they felt as if religious sects similar the Tolstoyans were models for the Russian peasantry.[89] The Soviet government owned the estate, which was accounted a memorial for the late Russian writer, but Alexandra had jurisdiction over the education offered at Yasnaya Polyana. Different about Soviet schools, the schooling at Yasnaya Polyana did not offer militaristic training and did spread atheistic propaganda. Over time, though, local communists – as opposed to the state government, which financially supported the establishment – often denounced the estate and called for frequent inspections. After 1928, a change in cultural policy in the Soviet regime led to a takeover of local institutions, including Tolstoy'southward estate. When Alexandra stepped down from her role as caput of Yasnaya Poliana in 1929, the Commissariat of Didactics and Wellness took control.[89]

In 1925, the Soviet government created its first Jubilee Committee to gloat the centennial of Tolstoy'due south nascence, which originally consisted of thirteen members only grew to 38 members after a second committee formed in 1927.[89] Alexandra was not content with the funds provided by the authorities, and met with Stalin in June 1928. During the meeting, Stalin said the regime could non provide the ane one thousand thousand roubles requested by the committee.[89] However, an agreement was reached with the State Publishing House in April 1928 for the publishing of a 92-volume collection of Tolstoy's works.[89] During the Jubilee Celebration, Anatoly Luncharsky – the head of the People's Commissariat for Education – gave a speech in which he refuted reports that claimed the Soviet government was hostile towards Tolstoy and his legacy. Instead of focusing on the aspects of Tolstoy's works that pitted him against the Soviet authorities, he instead focused on the unifying aspects, such as Tolstoy's love for equality and labor as well every bit his disdain for the state and private property.[89] More than 400 million copies of Tolstoy's works accept been printed in the Soviet Union, making him the best-selling writer in Soviet Russia.[90]

Influence

Vladimir Lenin wrote several essays about Tolstoy, suggesting that a contradiction exists within his critique of Russian club. According to Lenin, Tolstoy – who adorned the peasantry and voiced their discontent with imperial Russian social club – may have been revolutionary in his critiques, but his political conscious was not fully developed for a revolution.[91] Lenin uses this line of thinking to advise that the 1905 Russian Revolution, which he called a "peasant conservative revolution," failed because of its backwardness: the revolutionaries wanted to dismantle the existing medieval forms of oppression and replace them with an erstwhile and patriarchal village-district.[91] Tolstoy's concept of non-resistance to evil additionally hindered the 1905 revolution's success, Lenin idea, because the movement was non militant and had thus allowed the autocracy to vanquish them.[91] Nevertheless, Stalin concludes in his writings that despite the many contradictions in Tolstoy's critiques, his hatred for feudalism and capitalism mark the prelude to proletarian socialism.[91]

Additionally, Tolstoy's philosophy of non-resistance to evil made an impact on Mahatma Gandhi'southward political thinking. Gandhi was securely moved past Tolstoy's concept of truth, which, in his view, constitutes whatever doctrine that reduces suffering.[92] For both Gandhi and Tolstoy, truth is God, and since God is universal love, truth must therefore also be universal honey. The Gujarati word for Gandhi's not-violent motility is "satyagraha," derived from the word "sadagraha" – the "sat" portion translating to "truth," and the "agraha" translating to "firmness."[92] Gandhi'due south formulation of satyagraha was birthed from Tolstoy's understanding of Christianity, rather than from Hindu tradition.[92]

In films

A 2009 film about Tolstoy'southward final year, The Last Station, based on the 1990 novel by Jay Parini, was made by director Michael Hoffman with Christopher Plummer every bit Tolstoy and Helen Mirren equally Sofya Tolstoya. Both performers were nominated for Oscars for their roles. There take been other films about the writer, including Divergence of a Grand Old Human, made in 1912 just two years subsequently his death, How Fine, How Fresh the Roses Were (1913), and Leo Tolstoy, directed by and starring Sergei Gerasimov in 1984.

There is likewise a famous lost movie of Tolstoy fabricated a decade before he died. In 1901, the American travel lecturer Burton Holmes visited Yasnaya Polyana with Albert J. Beveridge, the U.S. senator and historian. As the three men conversed, Holmes filmed Tolstoy with his threescore-mm flick camera. Afterwards, Beveridge'due south advisers succeeded in having the moving picture destroyed, fearing that the coming together with the Russian author might hurt Beveridge's chances of running for the U.South. presidency.[93]

Bibliography

See as well

  • Anarchism and religion
  • Christian vegetarianism
  • Leo Tolstoy bibliography
  • Leo Tolstoy and Theosophy
  • Listing of peace activists
  • Tolstoyan motility
  • Henry David Thoreau
  • War & Peace (2016 TV serial)

Notes

  1. ^ Tolstoy pronounced his first name every bit [lʲɵf], which corresponds to the romanization Lyov. (Nabokov, Vladimir. Lectures on Russian literature. p. 216. )
  2. ^ In Tolstoy's day, his name was written as Левъ Николаевичъ Толстой in pre-reformed Russian.

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Further reading

  • Craraft, James. Two Shining Souls: Jane Addams, Leo Tolstoy, and the Quest for Global Peace (Lanham: Lexington, 2012). 179 pp.
  • Lednicki, Waclaw (April 1947). "Tolstoy through American optics". The Slavonic and East European Review. 25 (65).
  • Leon, Derrick (1944). Tolstoy His Life and Work. London: Routledge.
  • Trotsky's 1908 tribute to Leo Tolstoy Published by the International Commission of the 4th International (ICFI).
  • The Life of Tolstoy: Later years past Aylmer Maude, Dodd, Mead and Company, 1911 at Internet Archive
  • Why We Fail as Christians by Robert Hunter, The Macmillan Visitor, 1919 at Wikiquote
  • Why we fail as Christians by Robert Hunter, The Macmillan Company, 1919 at Google Books

External links

  • Leo Tolstoy at Curlie
  • Works by Leo Tolstoy in eBook form at Standard Ebooks
  • Works by Leo Tolstoy at Projection Gutenberg
  • Works by or about Leo Tolstoy at Internet Archive
  • Works by Leo Tolstoy at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
  • Leo Tolstoy at the Net Book List
  • Online project (readingtolstoy.ru) to create open up digital version of 90 volumes of Tolstoy works
  • Newspaper clippings about Leo Tolstoy in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
  • Wright, Charles Theodore Hagberg (1911). "Tolstoy, Leo". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 1053–1061.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy

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